Children and Young People: Indicators of Wellbeing in New Zealand 2008

Population overview: 
A profile of children and young people

ISBN 978-0-478-33506-4 (Print) 
ISBN 978-0-478-33507-1 (Online)

The other sections and the appendices of the Children and Young People: Indicators of Wellbeing in New Zealand 2008 can be found at www.msd.govt.nz

Population overview
Number of children and young people
At the time of the 2006 Census, there were 1.05 million children under 18 years and 385,000 young people aged 18–24 years living in New Zealand, a total of 1.44 million people under 25 years. These young New Zealanders made up over a third (36 percent) of the total New Zealand population.

The population under 25 years increased by 7 percent in the 15 years between 1991 and 2006 and is expected to continue growing until 2016, when it will reach just under 1.53 million. It is then expected to fall slightly by 2021 before increasing again to just over 1.53 million by 2026. 

While their number may be growing, children and young people represent a steadily shrinking proportion of the New Zealand population: in 1991, 40 percent of New Zealanders were aged under 25 years; by 2026, this share will have fallen to around 31 percent.

Table P1 Historical and projected number of children and young people, by age group, 1991–2026
Age group (years)	Historical (Census)	Projected (2006-base)	
	1991	1996	2001	2006	2011	2016	2021	2026	
0–4	277,149   	279,603   	270,801   	275,076	308,000	299,240	296,720	296,750	
5–9	251,178   	288,291   	286,200   	286,488	290,210	312,450	303,700	301,200	
10–14	255,318   	264,186   	290,739   	306,006	296,390	294,960	317,180	308,480	
15–17	166,182   	158,535   	160,641   	186,102	187,490	181,470	183,510	192,970	
Total under 18	949,827   	990,615   	1,008,381   	1,053,672	1,082,090	1,088,120	1,101,110	1,099,400	
18–19	118,806   	104,445   	104,640   	114,099	130,500	122,760	119,340	132,090	
20–24	271,095   	271,758   	239,784   	270,975	311,130	316,190	302,550	301,220	
Total 
18–24	389,901   	376,203   	344,424   	385,074	441,630	438,950	421,890	433,310	
Total under 25 	1,339,728   	1,366,818   	1,352,805   	1,438,746	1,523,720	1,527,070	1,523,000	1,532,710	
Total NZ population	3,373,926   	3,618,300   	3,737,280   	4,027,947	4,393,200	4,588,700	4,770,800	4,939,400	
% of total under 25	40	38	36	36	35	33	32	31	
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, usually resident population; National population projections (2006-base), Series 5, assuming medium fertility, medium mortality and long-term migration gain of 10,000. Base population for projections is June 2006 population estimates.

Changes in age groups
Changes in the size of different age groups have been more dramatic than the overall change in the population of children and young people. This will continue over the next decade or so as a result of past fluctuations in annual birth numbers and net migration change. Between 1986 and 1996, the number of children under 10 years increased by almost 65,000, or 13 percent, largely as a result of an increase in births in the late 1980s and early 1990s (the “baby blip”). This produced considerable increases in the 10–17 and 18–24 age groups between 2001 and 2006, with further growth in the 18–24 age group expected between 2006 and 2011. One consequence of this will be the entry of large numbers of young people into the labour market over the next few years. Another increase in births since 2002 will see increases in the 0–10 age group between 2006 and 2016 and in the 10–17 year old population between 2016 and 2021.

Figure P1 Five-yearly change in the number of children and young people, 1991–2006, and projected five-yearly change to 2026

Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, usually resident population; National population projections (2006-base), assuming medium fertility, medium mortality and long-term net migration gain of 10,000. Base population for projections is June 2006 population estimates.

Births
The number of children born in New Zealand has increased steadily since 2002.  There were 64,044 births registered in New Zealand in the December 2007 year.  This was a higher number than the most recent peak of 60,153 in 1990, and the highest number since 1971.

Figure P2 Number of live births registered, 1962–2007

Source: Statistics New Zealand, de facto population 1971–1990, resident population from 1991 
Older mothers
Children born in recent years are likely to have older mothers than did their parents.  The median age (half are younger and half older than this age) of New Zealand women giving birth in 2007 was just above 30 years and has been relatively stable since 2002.  This represents an increase of five years since the early 1970s. 
The median age of women giving birth to their first child (based on their current relationship) was 28 years. In the early 1970s, half of all women having their first child (within marriage) were younger than 23.

Age at childbearing varies widely by ethnicity, with European and Asian mothers having the highest median age (31 years in 2006).  Pacific and Mäori women giving birth are younger, on average, with a median age of 28 years for Pacific mothers and 26 years for Mäori mothers in 2006.  For Other ethnic groups, the median age of women giving birth was just over 30 years.

Age-specific fertility rates illustrate the distinct childbearing patterns of the four main ethnic groups.   

Figure P3 Age-specific fertility rate, by single year of age and ethnic group of mother, 2006
Source: Statistics New Zealand
Notes: (1) Each birth has been included in every ethnic group specified. For this reason, some births are counted more than once. (2) Births data are based on ethnicity of the mother.
Babies with multiple ethnicities
Newborn children are more likely than their mothers to belong to more than one ethnic group. In 2007, 25 percent of babies registered were identified with more than one ethnic group, compared with 13 percent of their mothers. This suggests that younger generations are becoming increasingly multicultural.  Two-thirds of Mäori babies and one-half of Pacific babies belonged to multiple ethnic groups, compared with roughly one-third of babies within the European, Asian and Other ethnic groups.
Births by urban, rural and deprivation area
Birth registration data for the years 2005–2007 shows that 87 percent of mothers lived in urban areas, a slight decline from 88 percent in 2004. The majority of mothers (74 percent) lived in main urban areas (population of 30,000 or more). 

Hospital discharge data indicates that mothers of newborn children are over-represented in relatively deprived neighbourhoods. Three in 10 mothers (30 percent) who had a hospital birth in 2005 lived in the most deprived areas (quintile 5), as defined in the New Zealand Index of Deprivation (NZDep2001). 

Figure P4 Birth mothers by deprivation quintile of place of residence, 2005

Source: New Zealand Health Information Service (2008), Table 2.5
Note: Data is for hospital births only.
Migration and population growth
Between 1986 and 2007, New Zealand had a net gain of almost 62,000 children aged under 15 years through migration, most of them during the mid-1990s. Over the same period, the country experienced a net loss of just over 55,000 young people aged 15–24 years. Most of the outflow of 15–24 year olds occurred in the late 1980s, when unemployment was rising. Between 2001 and 2007, there was a net gain from migration of almost 24,000 in this age group. This was largely as a result of a sharp increase up to 2003 in the number of young people – mostly from China and Korea – who came to New Zealand to study for a year or more. These patterns are strongly influenced by changes in migration policy.

Figure P5 Net migration of children and young people, by age group, 1982–2007

Source: Statistics New Zealand, permanent and long-term (PLT) external migration data.
Net migration = PLT arrivals minus PLT departures.
Children and young people born overseas
An increasing proportion of children living in New Zealand were born overseas. At the time of the 2006 Census, 11 percent of children aged under 15 years and 23 percent of 15–24 year olds were recorded as overseas born, an increase from 8 percent and 14 percent, respectively, in 1996. Of the overseas-born population under 25 counted in 2006, the majority (56 percent) were recent arrivals (ie they were not living in New Zealand five years before the Census). The largest groups of recent arrivals were born in Asian countries (30 percent of those under 15 and 60 percent of those aged 15–24). Sizeable groups of recently arrived children aged under 15 years were born in the United Kingdom and Ireland (23 percent), Australia and the Pacific Islands (both 12 percent). 
Regional distribution
The Auckland region is home to the largest proportion of children and young people, just over one-third. Another third is fairly evenly distributed between the Canterbury, Wellington and Waikato regions, with the final third spread across the remaining 12 regions. The geographic distribution of 18–24 year olds is similar to that of children under 18 years, except that there are higher proportions living in regions containing large tertiary education institutions.

Figure P6 Distribution of children and young people by region, 2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings 2006.

The share of children in the population varies by region. In 2006, the Gisborne region had the highest concentration of children under 18 (31 percent) and Otago the lowest (22 percent). In Otago, Auckland, Wellington and Manawatu-Wanganui, 18–24 year olds made up a higher proportion of the population (10–13 percent) than in New Zealand as a whole (just under 10 percent).

Figure P7 Children and young people as a proportion of total population, by region, 2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings 2006.
Urban–rural distribution
The majority of children and young people live in major urban centres with populations of 30,000 or more – 71 percent of those aged under 18 years and 81 percent of 18–24 year olds in 2006. Another 14 percent and 10 percent, respectively, lived in secondary urban areas (population of 10,000–29,999) or minor urban areas (1,000–9,999). Only 15 percent of children aged under 18 years and 9 percent of 18–24 year olds lived in rural areas in 2006. Overall, children under 18 years (85 percent) are about as urbanised as the population as a whole (86 percent), while 18–24 year olds are more highly urbanised (91 percent).

Children and young people from the European and Mäori ethnic groups had the lowest rates of urbanisation while those in the Pacific, Asian and Other ethnic groups were almost wholly concentrated in urban areas, with at least nine out of 10 living in the main urban areas.

Table P2 Urban and rural residence (%) by age and ethnic group, 2006
 Age and area of usual residence	European	Māori	Pacific peoples	Asian	Other	Total	
0–17 years							
Main urban area (30,000+)	67	64	91	93	91	71	
Secondary urban area (10,000 – 29,999)	7	7	3	2	2	6	
Minor urban area (1,000 –9,999)	8	13	3	2	3	8	
Total urban	82	85	97	98	96	85	
Rural (0–999)	18	15	3	2	4	15	
Total	100	100	100	100	100	100	
18–24 years							
Main urban area	78	71	93	97	92	81	
Secondary urban area	5	6	3	1	2	4	
Minor urban area	6	11	2	1	4	6	
Total urban	89	89	98	99	97	91	
Rural	11	11	2	1	3	9	
Total	100	100	100	100	100	100	
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings 2006
Notes: (1) People identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported. 
(2) Those identified as ‘New Zealander’ have been included in the European ethnic group.
Sex distribution
Just over half of all newborn babies are male (52 percent in 2007). A slight predominance of males persists among children under 18 (51 percent), a pattern has been stable since 1991. The same pattern holds for 18–19 year olds from 1995, while among 20–24 year olds, the sexes have been evenly distributed throughout the period 1991–2007.
Ethnic distribution 
Children and young people are becoming a more ethnically diverse population with declining proportions identifying as European and growing proportions identifying with Asian, Pacific and Other ethnic groups. In the under 18 age group the proportion of Mäori changed little between 1996 and 2006, remaining at around 24 percent. The proportion identifying with Pacific ethnic groups increased from 10 percent to 12 percent over this period while those belonging to Asian ethnic groups increased from just over 6 percent to almost 10 percent. 

The 18–24 age group shows a similar pattern of increasing diversity. The proportion of Mäori in this age group fell slightly from 19 percent to 18 percent between 1996 and 2006. Pacific people increased their representation slightly over this period but the biggest increase was again among the Asian ethnic group which grew from 7 percent to almost 17 percent – partly due to large increases up until 2003 in the number of overseas Asian students studying in New Zealand. Those in Other ethnic groups – mainly from the Middle Eastern, African and Latin American regions – have a small but growing presence in both age groups.  

Table P3 Ethnic distribution of children and young people, 1996–2006

		1996	2001	2006	
0–17 years	
	European	77.0	74.3	72.4	
	Māori	24.1	24.0	23.7	
	Pacific peoples	10.0	11.0	12.1	
	Asian	6.3	7.4	9.7	
	Other	0.7	0.9	1.2	
18–24 years	
	European	77.9	71.3	67.1	
	Māori	19.3	18.9	18.1	
	Pacific peoples	7.6	8.8	8.9	
	Asian	7.1	11.8	16.7	
	Other	0.5	0.9	1.3	
Source: Statistics New Zealand, five-year ethnic population estimates
Notes: (1) People identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported. 
(2)  To maintain consistency over time, those identified as ‘New Zealander’ in 2006 have been included in the European ethnic group.

The trend of increasing ethnic diversity among children and young people is expected to continue. Medium population projections based on 2006 data suggest that by 2026 the proportion of the population identifying as European will have fallen to 65 percent in the under 18 age group and to 66 percent in the 18–24 age group. In the under 18 age group it is projected that by 2026, 28 percent will be Mäori, 18 percent will be of Asian ethnicity and the same proportion (18 percent) will identify with Pacific ethnic groups. Among 18–24 year olds it is projected that 21 percent will be Mäori, 17 percent Asian and 14 percent Pacific peoples.
  
Ethnic diversity varies by region. In 2006, Mäori children made up a relatively high proportion of children and young people under the age of 18 in Gisborne (61 percent), Northland (48 percent), Bay of Plenty (42 percent) and Hawke’s Bay (36 percent), but less than 20 percent of this age group in South Island regions. In the Auckland region under 18 year olds were more likely to be of Pacific or Asian ethnicity (23 percent and 19 percent respectively) than Mäori (17 percent). Among 18–24 year olds in Auckland there were considerably more Asians (29 percent) than Mäori (13 percent) or Pacific peoples (16 percent).

Official languages
New Zealand has three official languages: English, Māori (from 1987), and New Zealand Sign Language (from April 2006). The 2006 Census recorded that 98 percent of children and young people aged 5–24 years could speak English, 5 percent could speak Māori, and 0.7 percent (7,600 people) could converse in New Zealand Sign Language. The equivalent figures for the total population were 96 percent, 4 percent and 0.6 percent (24,090 people), respectively. 

In 2006, 82 percent of children aged 5–14 years and 74 percent of young people aged 15–24 years could speak English only, while 17 percent and 24 percent, respectively, could speak English along with at least one other language. Over 9,000 5–14 year olds (1.6 percent) and a similar number of 15–24 year olds (1.8 percent) could not speak English. 

Of all age groups, young adults aged 20–24 were the most likely to be able to use New Zealand sign language (0.9 percent), followed by those aged 15–19 and those aged 25–29 (each 0.8 percent).  Children aged 10–14 were as likely as adults aged 30–54 to be able to use New Zealand Sign Language (0.7 percent), while children aged 5–9 were much less likely to have this skill (0.4 percent). Overall, children and young people aged from 5–24 years accounted for almost one-third (32 percent) of New Zealand Sign Language speakers.
Children and young people with disabilities
In the 2006 Disability Survey, 10 percent of children aged 0–14 years living in private households (an estimated 90,000 children) had a disability that limited their activities. Around half reported that their disabilities had existed from birth (52 percent of children with disabilities, or 5 percent of all children).  Around a quarter (26 percent) had disabilities resulting from disease or illness, while 3 percent reported accident or injury as the cause. 

Long-term health problems were common among children with disabilities (39 percent), as were sight and hearing problems (26 percent). Psychiatric or psychological disabilities affected 21 percent of children with disabilities, and intellectual disabilities affected 19 percent. An estimated 5 percent of children had special education needs (41,000 children or 46 percent of children with disability).
Boys were more likely than girls to have a disability – 12 percent of boys reported a disability, compared with 9 percent of girls.

The disability rate was highest for Māori children, at 14 percent. In all ethnic groups, boys were more likely than girls to have a disability, with Mäori boys having the highest rate (17 percent) and Asian girls the lowest (4 percent). 

Table P4 Disability rate (%), children aged 0–14 years, by ethnic group and sex, 2006

	European	Māori	Pacific peoples	Asian	Other	Total	
Male 	11	17	9	7	13	12	
Female 	8	12	8	4	8	9	
Total 	10	14	8	6	11	10	
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Disability Survey 2006
Note: (1) Prioritised output for ethnic groups has been used. (2) Children identified as ‘New Zealander’ are included in Other.

In the age group 15–24 years, 7 percent of people had disabilities (an estimated 33,000 people). Of this group, 42 percent reported that their disabilities had existed since birth, 36 percent that they were the result of disease or illness and 22 percent that they were the result of accident or injury.

Again, the disability rate in this age group was higher for males than females (8 percent compared with 5 percent). It was also highest for Māori at 9 percent, compared with 7 percent for Europeans, 5 percent for Pacific peoples, 3 percent for Asians and 7 percent for Other ethnic groups.

Disability is associated with lower rates of employment. In the 15–24 age group, 48 percent of males and 27 percent of females with disabilities were employed in 2006 compared with 59 percent of males and 61 percent of females without disabilities.
Children’s family circumstances
In 2006, there were nearly one million dependent children under 18 living in New Zealand families, an increase of 8 percent since 1986.

The last few decades have seen dramatic changes in patterns of family formation, dissolution and reformation which is reflected in the changing family circumstances of dependent children. Growth in the number of children living in one-parent families was rapid in the 1980s but slowed in the 1990s.  Between 2001 and 2006, the number of children living in one-parent families fell by 1 percent (the first decline recorded since 1976), while the number living in two-parent families grew by 5 percent.

While the majority of dependent children live in two-parent families, the proportion living in one-parent families at the time of the census has grown from 16 percent in 1986 to 27 percent in 2001, falling back slightly to 26 percent in 2006.  

Table P5 Number and distribution of dependent children under 18 years, by family type, 1986–2006
 
Census 
year	Number	Percent	
	One-parent	Two-parent	Total	One-parent	Two-parent	Total	
1986	140,550	745,392	885,942	16	84	100	
1991	191,415	702,003	893,418	21	79	100	
1996	213,378	692,442	905,820	24	76	100	
2001	248,394	682,155	930,549	27	73	100	
2006	244,733	714,756	959,489	26	74	100	
Intercensal change (%)	
1986–1991	36	-6	1				
1991–1996	11	-1	1				
1996–2001	16	-1	3				
2001–2006	-1	5	3				
Source: Statistics New Zealand, unpublished census data

Most children living in one-parent families usually live with their mother.  Over the 20 years to 2006, the proportion of dependent children living with a sole mother rose from 14 percent to 22 percent, while the proportion living with a sole father doubled from 2 percent to 4 percent. Many children of separated parents spend time in both parents’ households but the snapshot taken at the time of the census is unable to capture this information.

Compared with other developed countries, New Zealand has a relatively high proportion of children under 18 living in one-parent families. At 26 percent in 2006, New Zealand ranked second only to the United States (28 percent in 2006), and higher than the United Kingdom (24 percent in 2006), Canada and Australia (each 20 percent in 2006).
Ethnic differences in family structure
The growth of one-parent families in the late 1980s was more pronounced for Māori and Pacific children than it was for European and Asian children. Slower growth over the 1990s in the proportion living in one-parent families was evident for the European, Māori and Pacific ethnic groups. The slight decline between 2001 and 2006 occurred for children of all ethnic groups except Pacific peoples. In 2006, 42 percent of Māori children, 36 percent of Pacific children, 22 percent of European children, 18 percent of Asian children and 27 percent of children from Other ethnic groups were living in one-parent families.

Table P6 Proportion (%) of dependent children under 18 years living with one parent, by ethnic group of child, 1986–2006

Ethnic group 
of child	1986	1991	1996	2001	2006	
						
European	13	17	20	23	22	
Mäori	28	39	41	44	42	
Pacific peoples	21	30	32	34	36	
Asian	11	13	16	20	18	
Other	21	23	24	29	27	
Total	16	21	24	27	26	
 	 	 	 	 	 	
Source: Statistics New Zealand, published and unpublished census data
Notes: (1) Children identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported. (2)  To maintain consistency over time, children identified as ‘New Zealander’ in 2006 have been included in the European ethnic group. 
An indication of the proportion of children starting life in a one-parent family can be obtained from the family circumstances of children aged under one year.  The proportion of babies under one year living with a sole mother increased sharply between 1986 and 1991 (from 13 percent to 19 percent), peaked at 21 percent in 1996, then fell back slightly to just under 19 percent in 2006. Mäori babies under one year are the most likely to be living with a sole mother (36 percent in 2006), but the proportion has fallen from a peak of 40 percent in 1991.

Figure P8: Proportion of infants under 1 year living with a sole mother, by ethnic group of child, 1986–2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand, unpublished census data
Notes: (1) Children identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported. (2)  To maintain consistency over time, children identified as ‘New Zealander’ in 2006 have been included in the European ethnic group. 
Longitudinal studies give a better indication than point-in-time measures of the time children spend in a one-parent family during the course of their childhood. For example, the Christchurch Health and Development Study found that 36 percent of children born in Christchurch in 1977 had spent a period of time in a one-parent family by the age of 16. The majority (79 percent) of children who had spent time in a one-parent family had done so as a result of parental separation and divorce. 

Census data also shows that a majority of children in one-parent families have a previously-married parent.  A small group (10 percent) has a currently-married parent whose spouse lives elsewhere – categorised as “married (not separated)” - and are therefore not, strictly speaking, the children of sole parents.  However, the proportion of children with a never-married sole parent almost doubled between 1986 and 2006, from 22 percent to 43 percent. Given increases in de facto partnerships, delayed marriage and re-partnering, legal marital status at census date may be an increasingly poor guide to family history. Moreover, a number of never-married sole parents will have separated from a de facto spouse or cohabiting partner, a group that has also grown in the last 20 years.  Children whose parents were cohabiting made up 17 percent of children in two-parent families in 2006, compared to just 5 percent in 1986.  

Table P7 Distribution (%) of dependent children by parental legal or social marital status, 1986, 1996, 2006

	1986	1996	2006	
Children in one-parent families				
Never-married parent	22	41	43	
Married or previously-married parent	78	59	57	
     Married (not separated)	5	8	10	
     Separated	38	26	23	
     Divorced	24	20	19	
     Widowed	11	5	4	
Total	100	100	100	
				
Children in two-parent families				
Parents legally married	95	87	83	
Parents cohabiting	5	13	17	
Total	100	100	100	
		
Source: Statistics New Zealand, unpublished census data
Note: (1) The table shows parental legal or social marital status at the time of the census. There is no data for never-married sole parents who had previously cohabited.

Birth registration data provides some evidence that the vast majority of children (93 percent) have a father who acknowledges them at the time of their birth. The proportion of births for which father’s details were recorded (an action requiring the father’s signature) has remained largely unchanged over the past 25 years. Just 7 percent of births in 2005 did not have a father’s signature, the same proportion as recorded in 1980.

The latest birth data registration form collects information about the parent’s relationship status. Of the 64,000 births in 2007, 53 percent of mothers were legally married or in a civil union, 29 percent were in a de facto (cohabiting) relationship, and 18 percent were in neither a legal nor a de facto relationship.
Children involved in divorce
It is difficult to measure the rate at which couples with children separate because there are no records kept of changes in living arrangements. Divorce statistics are an inadequate measure of family change because they exclude the breakdown of relationships between cohabiting couples. Moreover, dissolutions are generally not recorded until some time after separation.

Just under half (45 percent) of all marriages that dissolved in 2007 involved people with children under 17 years. The number of children involved totalled 7,824 in 2007, a rate of 7.7 per 1,000 children under 17 years. The rate at which children were involved in divorce peaked at 16.6 in 1982, the first year after the Family Proceedings Act 1980 came into effect, introducing “no fault” divorce. By the end of the 1980s, the rate had fallen to around 10 per 1,000, followed by a more gradual decline to 9.0 per 1,000 by 1999 and to 7.9 per 1,000 by 2006.
Children aged 10–16 years are more likely than younger children to experience their parents’ divorce. In 2007, the rate for 10–16 year olds was 9.6 per 1,000, compared with 6.2 per 1,000 children aged under 10 years.

Figure P9 Proportion of children whose parents divorced during the year, 1981–2007

Source: Statistics New Zealand
Children living in step or blended families
There is little New Zealand information on children living in step or blended families. Indicative findings from the 1995 New Zealand Women: Family, Education and Employment survey were that one in five children had lived in a blended family before they reached 17 years of age.  In this survey, blended families were defined as those where a woman entered a new partnership in which one or both partners had children from previous unions.

Mäori children (29 percent) were more likely than non-Mäori children (18 percent) to have lived in a blended family.  There were also differences among children by the level of their mothers’ educational qualifications, with 18 percent of children whose mothers had no qualifications having lived in a blended family, compared with 13 percent of those whose mothers had a secondary qualification, and just 6 percent of those whose mothers had university-level qualifications.

Parental employment
Dependent children in two-parent families
Since the mid-1990s, the most common parental employment arrangement for children in two-parent families is one where both parents are employed full-time (for at least 30 hours a week). In 2006, one-third (33 percent) of dependent children aged under 18 years were living with two parents who were both employed full-time. This was an increase from 30 percent in 2001. The trend for earlier years is available for children under 15: the proportion with both parents employed full-time was 20 percent in 1981, 25 percent in 1986, 23 percent in 1991 and 26 percent in 1996.

The second most common arrangement is where the father is employed full-time and the mother employed part-time. In 2006, 28 percent of dependent children had a father employed full-time and a mother employed part-time. This is very much a European pattern. For European children in 2006, it was slightly more common than having both parents employed full-time.

The third most common arrangement is where the father is employed full-time and the mother is not employed. Almost one in four dependent children living in two-parent families in 2006 had parents with this arrangement (24 percent). The proportion was slightly higher than average for Pacific children (28 percent). This may reflect their larger average family size: mothers with larger numbers of children are less likely to be employed.  The single-earner couple was the most common arrangement overall until the mid-1980s. In 1981, 44 percent of children under 15 living in two-parent families had a full-time employed father and a mother with no paid job. The proportion fell slightly to 42 percent in 1986, then sharply to 27 percent in 1991, as more partnered mothers remained in, or re-entered, the paid workforce.

Asian children living in two-parent families are more likely than average to have both parents employed full-time, but they are also more likely to have neither parent employed. This polarisation may reflect the diversity of a group that includes many recent migrants.

Pacific, Asian and Māori children were much more likely than European children to live in families without a parent in employment, whether in one or two-parent families.

Table P8 Dependent children under 18 years living in two-parent and one-parent families, by parental employment status and ethnic group of child, 2006
Family type and 
parental employment status 	European 	Māori 	Pacific peoples	Asian 	Total	
Children in two-parent families	 	 	 	 	 	
Both parents full-time	32	34	34	38	33	
Father full-time, mother part-time	33	21	13	15	28	
Father full-time, mother not employed 	25	25	28	25	24	
Father part-time or not employed,	 	 	 	 	 	
  mother employed	6	9	11	9	7	
Father part-time, mother not employed 	1	2	2	3	1	
Neither parent employed	3	8	12	11	6	
Total 	100	100	100	100	100	
Children in one-parent families	 	 	 	 	 	
Father only families	 	 	 	 	 	
Father full-time 	64	47	51	54	58	
Father part-time 	8	7	7	8	8	
Father not employed 	28	46	42	38	34	
Total 	100	100	100	100	100	
Mother only families	 	 	 	 	 	
Mother full-time 	30	22	24	25	28	
Mother part-time 	24	17	14	15	20	
Mother not employed 	46	61	62	60	52	
Total 	100	100	100	100	100	
All one-parent families	 	 	 	 	 	
Parent full-time	35	26	27	29	32	
Parent part-time	22	16	13	14	18	
Parent not employed	44	59	60	57	49	
Total	100	100	100	100	100	
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings 2006, unpublished data
Notes:
(1) Total includes only those cases in which the labour force status of both parents was recorded.
(2) People identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported.
(3) Those identified as ‘New Zealander’ have been included in the European ethnic group.
(4) Dependent children are defined in the Census as those who are aged under 18 years and are not in full-time employment.
(5) Percentages do not necessarily add up to 100 because of rounding.

Dependent children in one-parent families
Just over half (51 percent) of all dependent children living with one parent in 2006 had an employed parent, an increase from 46 percent in 2001. European children (56 percent) were the most likely to have an employed parent, while Pacific children (40 percent), Mäori children (41 percent) and Asian children (43 percent) were less likely than average to do so.  The increase in parental employment between 2001 and 2006 was evident for all ethnic groups.

The proportion of dependent children with a sole parent employed full-time increased by 5 percentage points between 2001 and 2006 (from 27 percent to 32 percent).  The increase occurred across all ethnic groups but was strongest for European and Asian children.  For the minority of children living with a sole father, the increase in parental full-time employment was greatest for Asian, Mäori and Pacific children over the five years to 2006.

Children living with a sole father are more likely to have an employed parent than children living with a sole mother. In part, this is because those living with sole fathers are older. Well over half (57 percent) of dependent children living with a sole father in 2006 were aged 10 or older, compared with less than half (45 percent) of those living with a sole mother.

Children’s family incomes
The number of parents a child lives with and the number of parents employed have important implications for children’s family income. In 2006, the median family income of dependent children in two-parent families ($69,900) was almost three times as large as the median family income of those in one-parent families ($23,800). For children in one-parent families, those who usually lived with their father ($31,900) had higher median family incomes than those who usually lived with their mother ($23,000). The pattern was the same for children of all ethnic groups.

Table P9 Median family incomes of dependent children, by family type and ethnic group of child, 2006
Ethnicity of child	Family type	
	One-parent (father)	One-parent (mother)	One-parent (total)	Two-parent	Total	
European	$36,186	$24,300	$25,200	$75,600	$63,900	
Māori	$25,200	$21,100	$21,500	$61,100	$40,700	
Pacific peoples	$27,100	$21,000	$21,600	$57,300	$41,800	
Asian	$26,600	$20,900	$21,600	$55,400	$47,500	
Other	$24,000	$21,300	$21,500	$54,500	$41,500	
Total  	$31,900	$23,000	$23,800	$69,900	$58,300	
Source: Statistics New Zealand, unpublished census data
Notes: (1) Children identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported. 
(2) Children identified as ‘New Zealander’ have been included in the European ethnic group. 

Living arrangements of young people aged 15–24
The majority of young people live with their parents but this proportion declines markedly with age. In 2006, 79 percent of young adults aged 15–19 lived with their parents or people in a parent role, compared with 32 percent of those aged 20–24. In both age groups males were more likely than females to live with their parents. Among 15–19 year olds 81 percent of males and 76 percent of females lived with their parents, while in the 20–24 age groups 37 percent of males and 27 percent of females did so. 

The likelihood of young people living with their parents varies by ethnicity. In both age groups, Mäori were the least likely to live with their parents in 2006 (73 percent of 15–19 year olds and 28 percent of 20–24 year olds) while Pacific people were the most likely to do so (82 percent of 15–19 year olds and 45 percent of 20–24 year olds).

Table P10 Proportion of young people living with parents, 2006
Age and ethnicity	Male	Female	Total	
15–19 years				
European	84	77	81	
Mäori	76	69	73	
Pacific peoples	83	80	82	
Asian	76	74	75	
Other	80	81	81	
Total	81	76	79	
20–24 years				
European	37	25	31	
Mäori	36	21	28	
Pacific peoples	50	40	45	
Asian	32	28	30	
Other	43	35	39	
Total	37	27	32	
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings 2006, unpublished data
Notes: (1) People identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported. 
(2) Those identified as ‘New Zealander’ have been included in the European ethnic group. 

The proportion of young people living with their parents increased during the 1980s but the trend appears to have levelled off since 1991. In 2006, 56 percent of 15–24 year olds lived with their parents, compared with 57 percent in 1991. Over that period, the proportion living with their parents increased in the 15–19 age group but decreased in the 20–24 age group.

Table P11 Proportion (%) of young people living with their parents, 1981–2006

Census year	15–19 years	20–24 years	15–24 years	
				
1981	71	28	51	
1986	77	31	54	
1991	77	36	57	
1996	76	35	55	
2001	76	32	55	
2006	79	32	56	
				
Source: 1981, 1991: Statistics New Zealand (1994) p 59-60; 
1986, 1996, 2001, 2006: Statistics New Zealand, unpublished census data

The largest group of young people not living with their parents in 2006 lived in a non-family situation (for instance, with flatmates).  This was the case for 14 percent of 15–19 year olds and 32 percent of 20–24 year olds.  Some had formed families of their own by their early twenties: 21 percent of those aged 20–24 lived as a couple with no children, 7 percent as a parent in a two-parent family, and 5 percent were sole parents.  Among 15–19 year olds, these proportions were far smaller (4 percent, 1 percent and 1 percent, respectively).  A small proportion of young people lived alone (1 percent of 15–19 year olds; 4 percent of 20–24 year olds).

Asian young people were the most likely to be living in a non-family situation. This is likely to reflect the high proportion of international students in this group. Along with Europeans, they were also the most likely to be living in a couple with no children.  Mäori and Pacific young people were the most likely to be living with their own children, either in a couple or as a sole parent.

In each ethnic group, females were more likely than males to have formed families of their own, living with a partner (with or without children), or as a sole parent.

Figure P10 Living arrangements of young people aged 15–24 years, by ethnic group, 2006

Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings 2006
Notes: (1) People identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported. 
(2) Those identified as ‘New Zealander’ have been included in the European ethnic group.
Young people living in same-sex couples
The 2006 Census recorded 1,300 young people aged 15–24 years living with a same-sex partner, representing 1.6 percent of all 15–24 year olds living with a partner. In comparison, 0.9 percent of people aged 25–44 and 0.5 percent of people aged 45 and over living in couples lived with a same-sex partner.  Although young people were more likely than older people to live with a same-sex partner, they made up only a small proportion (11 percent) of all people living in same-sex couples.

According to Statistics New Zealand, it is likely that these figures understate the number of same-sex couples who live together because of inconsistencies in the way people answered the census question. There is no census data for couples who live in separate households, either for opposite-sex or same-sex couples.

In the Youth2000 survey conducted in 2001, 0.7 percent of secondary school students aged 12–18 years (68 students) reported that they were sexually attracted to the same sex, while a further 3.1 percent (277 students) said they were attracted to both sexes. Most students (92.2 percent) reported that they were exclusively attracted to the opposite sex, 2.3 percent were not sure and 1.7 percent said they were sexually attracted to neither sex.  

Housing tenure 
The majority of children and young people under the age of 18 live in dwellings which are owned by residents of the dwelling – either with or without a mortgage or in a family trust. Between 2001 and 2006 there was a slight fall in the proportion living in homes owned by residents, from 64 percent to 62 percent. The figures vary considerably by ethnicity, with 70 percent of Europeans under the age of 18 living in dwellings owned by residents in 2006, compared with 63 percent of Asians, 42 percent of Māori, 33 percent of Pacific peoples and 36 percent of those from Other ethnic groups. Those in European, Māori and Pacific ethnic groups all experienced a decline in levels of home ownership between 2001 and 2006.

Young people aged 18–24 are much less likely than those in the younger age group to live in homes owned by residents, reflecting the fact that many in this age group have left their parental home but not yet bought homes of their own. In 2006, 45 percent of 18–24 year olds lived in dwellings which were owned by someone in the residence, the same as the 2001 figure. Again there were considerable differences by ethnicity, with Asians (49 percent) and Europeans (47 percent) being much more likely than those belonging to Māori, Pacific and Other ethnic groups to live in homes owned by residents.     
Table P12 Proportion of children and young people living in dwellings owned or partly owned by usual residents, by ethnicity and age, 2001 and 2006
Ethnic group	0–17 years	18–24 years	
	2001	2006	2001	2006	
European	71	70	46	47	
Mäori	45	42	35	35	
Pacific peoples	35	33	37	36	
Asian	63	63	56	49	
Other	33	36	28	30	
Total	64	62	45	45	
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings 2001 and 2006, unpublished data
Notes: (1) 2006 figures include dwellings held in a family trust by usual residents. This category was not available before 2006, which affects the comparability of the 2001 and 2006 data. (2) People identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported. (3)  Those identified as ‘New Zealander’ have been included in the European ethnic group.
Household size
In 2006, the majority of children and young people under the age of 18 lived in households consisting of four or five usual residents (57 percent). The remainder of this age group were divided almost evenly between those who lived in households of one to three usual residents (21 percent) and those in households of six or more (22 percent). These figures were unchanged since 2001. Those in the European ethnic group were the most likely to live in smaller households consisting of either one to three or four to five people. Those belonging to Pacific ethnic groups were by far the most likely to live in large households, with over half (51 percent) living in households of six or more residents. Mäori children were also more likely than those from European, Asian or Other ethnic groups to live in households of six or more. There was little change in the distribution of ethnic groups by household size between 2001 and 2006.

Among 18–24 year olds, it was most common for people to live in households consisting of between one and three usual residents (45 percent). Another 39 percent lived in households of four or five people and 15 percent in households of six or more. Europeans were the most likely to live in households of one to three people (51 percent), while those belonging to Asian ethnic groups were the most likely to live in four or five-person households (43 percent). Again, Pacific people were by far the most likely to live in large households, with 44 percent living in households of six or more people – more than double the proportion of any other ethnic group. Between 2001 and 2006 most ethnic groups – with the exception of those in the Other category – experienced a slight decline in the proportion living in one to three person households and a slight increase in those living in households with six or more residents.     

Table P13 Number of usual residents in household, for children and young people, by age and ethnicity, 2006

Age and ethnic group	1–3 usual residents	4–5 usual residents	6 or more usual residents	
0–17 years				
European	23	62	15	
Mäori	22	48	31	
Pacific peoples	12	37	51	
Asian	21	57	22	
Other	20	53	27	
Total	21	57	22	
18–24 years				
European	51	40	9	
Mäori	42	36	22	
Pacific peoples	23	33	44	
Asian	37	43	20	
Other	39	40	21	
Total	45	39	15	
				
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings 2006
Notes: (1) People identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported. (2)  Those identified as ‘New Zealander’ have been included in the European ethnic group. 
Access to private transport
The vast majority of children and young people live in households with access to a motor vehicle, but the level of access varies by ethnic group. In 2006, 9 percent of Māori children under 18, 8 percent of Pacific children, and 7 percent of children from Other ethnic groups lived in a household with no motor vehicle. The comparable proportion for both European and Asian children was 3 percent. Among 18–24 year olds similar proportions of the non-European ethnic groups were without access to motor vehicles – 10 percent of Māori, 8 percent of Pacific peoples, 9 percent of Asians and 10 percent of those from Other ethnic groups. This compared with 5 percent of European young people of that age.